Circuit Switching

The circuit switching is the method used to connect telephone lines. It opens up a complete predetermined transmission route from sender to receiver before a messages is transmitted. An entire message is when transmitted at once. This method guarantees exclusive use of the transmission route and an uninterrupted message transmission. If all possible transmission routes to the receiver are being used, the sender must wait for a link to become free. The data transmission with circuit switching is an all-or-nothing process. It is faster and more efficient for data to be transmitted with packet switching.

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Component Assembly Model

Object technologies provide the technical frame work a component-based process model for software development. The object oriented paradigm emphasizes the creation of classes that encapsulate both data the algorithm that are used to manipulate the data. if properly designed and implemented, object oriented classes are reusable across different applications and computer based system architectures. Component Assembly Model leads to software usability. The integration/assembly of the already existing software components accelerates the development process. Now days, many component libraries are available on the Internet. If the right components are chosen, the integration aspect is made mush simpler.

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Public Domain

Usually these types of software are not under copyright, meaning anyone may access and duplicate the software. The software may be developed by government or donated by its developer or by a not-for-profit organisation for the benefit of the society at large. The public domain is defined by work that are not categorized as copyright infractions. in public domain, no compensation is expected and the source code is available free.

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Control Programs

The control programs manage the computer hardware and resources. The major functions of these programs are: resource management; data/file management and job/task management. The main program in most operating systems is the supervisor program. The supervisor program is a control program that is known in some operating systems as the monitor, executive, or kernel; it is responsible for controlling all other operating system programs as well as other system and application programs. the supervisor program controls the activities of all the hardware components of the computer.

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IT and Business

With technology becoming the order of the day, CIOs and CEOs will demand more from less. Currently, cloud computing is the technology which is disruptive but enable speed and innovation and has had a profound impact on how the CIOs function. It will lead to a positive impact for many CIOs and has fundamentally changes the role of the CIO. All the new development in technology are required to take IT to a next level. This switching from one technology to another will require a lot of investment but will have to be done by applying due diligence.

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Lack of a proper price policy

There is no clear cut price policy for public enterprises and the government has not laid down guidelines for the rate of return to be earned by different undertakings. public enterprises are expected to achieve various socio-economic objective and in the absence of a clear directive, pricing decisions are not always based on rational analyses. In addition to dogmatic price policy, there is lack of cost-consciousness, quality consciousness and effective control on waste and inefficiency.

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Nature of Business and its Prospectus

The prospective investor should examine the condition of the industry, Demand and supply position, availability of factors of production, degree of competition, exports and imports, government policy, etc. The past profits of the company, the present value of its assets and the scope for expansion should be analysed in case of an existing company.

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Reorganisation

No legal formalities are necessary for the formation of a partnership. Formation of a private company, on the other hand, involves a legal process. A partnership, this has a district advantage over private company in this respect. Unless special benefits of a particular business justify extra time and expense involved in formation, the ease and economy of formation is an important consideration in the choice of a form of organisation.

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Transferability of Internet

Shares of a public company are freely transferable but in a private company there are restrictions on the transfer for shares. A partner cannot transfer his interest in the firm to an outside without the unanimous consent of all the partners. Any person can become a member of a company by purchasing its shares but a new partner can be admitted only with the mutual consent of all the partners.

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Test planning

The testing policy should also include test planning, which is based on the predefined testing scope and objectives established as part of management's testing strategies. The test planning includes test plan review procedures and the development of various testing scenarios and methods. The management should evaluate the risks and merits of various types of the testing scenarios and develop test plans based on identified recovery needs. The test plan should identify quantifiable measurements of each test objective and should be reviewed prior to the test threats, event types, and crisis management situations and should vary from isolated system failures to wide scale disruptions.

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Inverted List

In file organisation, this is a file that is indexed on many of the attributes of the data itself. The inverted list method has a single index for each key type. The records are not necessarily stored in a sequence. They are placed in the data storage area, but indexes are updated for the record keys and location. The inverted list files use more media space and the storage devices get full quickly with this type of organisation. The benefits are apparent immediately because searching is fast. However, updating is much slower. The content-based queries in next retrieval systems are inverted indexes as their preferred mechanism.

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Public Cloud

The public clouds are owned and operated  by third parties; they deliver superior economies of scale to customers, as the infrastructure costs are spread among a mix of users, giving each individual client an attractive low-cost, 'pay-per-use' model. All customers share the same infrastructure pool with limited configuration, security protections, and availability variances. These are managed and supported by the cloud provider. One of the advantages of a public cloud is they may be larger than an enterprises cloud, thus providing the ability to scale seamlessly, on demand.

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System Software

The system software is a program that manages and supports the computer resources and operations of a computer system while it executes various tasks such as processing data and information, controlling hardware components, and allowing users to use application software. It acts as a bridge between computer system hardware and the application software. The system software is made up of many control pr and database manager. There are many kinds of computers these days. Some of them are easier to learn than others. Some of them perform better than others. These differences may come from different systems software.

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Acknowledgements

A number of individuals contributed at various stages of the manuscript of the book. It is always a challenge to quantify the contribution of each individual. Some help in the research work, some i creating the content, some do the critical review, some do the creative work and some give new thought and new ideas. Writing a book is a process, where the author keep learning from the environment and keeps gathering thought and ideas from everyone directly or indirectly related to the project. I thank everyone who has contributed in this endeavor.

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Equitable disposal of surplus

The trading surplus earned by a co-operative society is utilize for several purpose. A fixed rate of dividend not exceeding 10 per cent can be paid on the capital. One fourth of the profits is to transferred to general reserves as per the law. A portion of the surplus, not exceeding 10 per cent, may be utilize for the general welfare of the locality in which the society is functioning. The rest of the profits may be distributed among members in the from of bonus. Bonus is given on an agreed basis but not on the basis of the capital contributed by members. The bonus may be paid to the member in promotion to the purchases made by the member in the case of a consumers co-operative store, or in proportion to the goods delivered for sale to the society in the case of a producers' co-operative.

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Inadequate Marketing Facilities

Small scale units have to face several difficulties in the marketing and distribution of their products. Most of them do not have their own marketing network. They find it difficult to sell their output at remunerative prices due to higher cost of production and non-standardized quality of products. Small scale industries cannot afford to spend much on advertising, sales personnel, transportation, etc. They have to sell their products at throw-away prices due to weak bargaining power and immediate need for money.

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Significance of Location

Location of a plant is an important entrepreneurial decision because it exercises a great influence on the costs of production and distribution. In some cases the costs of manufacturing and marketing may vary as much as 10 per cent simply on account of location. Even a well-managed firm may find it difficult to operate successfully it if is located at an unfavorable site. Many firm enjoy a location advantage due to thoughtful consideration and sound planning. indeed no industry can prosper unless it is located at place chosen from the point of view of maximum efficiency of production and distribution." An appropriate location is essential to the efficient and economical working of a plant whereas an inappropriate location may restrict the growth and efficiency of the enterprise.

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Social Advantage

Small scale units offer opportunity for an independent way of life to people with small means. They offer saving in social overheads like education, housing and medical facilities. by taking industry nearer to the people. They help to raise per capital income and standard of living in the country. A system of widely diffused ownership permits wider participation of people in the process of economic development. Small scale provides a base for democracy, socialism and self-government.
Small scale enterprises provide an excellent opportunity to young men and woman with limited money to start their own business and thereby become. enterprises provide an excellent opportunity to young men and women with limited money to start their own business and thereby become entrepreneurs. In the absence of small business, they cannot launch their own enterprises. As a result, they will have to go in for employment in large scale concerns. Entrepreneurship is essential for the rapid economic development of the country. India remains under-developed despite abundant natural resources due to the shortage of entrepreneurs.

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Relevance of operational Autonomy

One of the main cause of poor performance of public enterprises in India has been lack of adequate operational autonomy. Operational autonomy implies that the management of a public enterprise enjoys sufficient freedom in decision-making but remains accountable to the pubic. It does not mean absolute freedom of action or complete autonomy. "Autonomy does not mean less public accountability, it means more. But it is accountable not for method, procedures should be accountable for their performance. But they must be given sufficient freedom of action for achieving the prescribed goals. "The assumption is that they need a large degree of flexibility and informality in their decision making and should not be held accountable, like department of the Government, for each and every action, but only for the achievement of objectives set out for them." Too much interference and two rigid supervision is prejudicial to the efficiency of public enterprise. Management of a public enterprise can function without fear of political interference in day-to-day operations. Political interference in the daily routine of a public enterprise prevents managers from taking bold decision based on commercial principles.

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Transparenncy

Transparency means accurate, adequate and timely disclosure of relevant information to the stakeholders. Without transparency, it is impossible to make any progress towards good governance. Business heads should realize that transparency also creates immense shareholder value. But many a time information need to move towards international standards in terms of disclosure of information by the corporate sector and though all this to develop a high level of public confidence in business. Once a company has public shareholding it is imperative that its commitment to financial transparency must be total. The company is a trustee of the investors' money and this responsibility in turn demand full disclosure. Corporations in India must learn to work with transparency and impeccable integrity as these are the essential ingredients to maximize their wealth and the wealth their interest are being taken care of.

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Managerial Requirement

Organisational and administrative requirement depend upon the size and nature of businesses. Small businesses using simple processes of production and distribution can be managed effectively as proprietorships and partnerships. On the other hand, Giant enterprises involving the use of complex techniques and procedures require professional management. Such enterprises can be managed efficiently only as joint stock companies. Due to identity of ownership and management, motivation is very high in proprietorship and partnership. Such motivation is lacking in a company due to separation of ownership from management.

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Effort Never Dies

What I have seen students generally doing is that they keep on changing their career options once they face failure in achieving their preferred career choice; which leads them nowhere! All of us want to achieve success, but what drives success is the question left understood or misunderstood. There is no shortcut to success, you need to travel on one clearly defined direction that you have identified in the first unit coupled with practice, patience, and perseverance.

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